Mechanisms of Virus Differ among the Hepatitis Virus

Erik Dabelsteen^*
*Correspondence: Erik Dabelsteen, Department of Oral Diagnostics, Royal University, Copenhagen, Denmark, Email:

Introduction

Viral hepatitis is a common infectious disease caused by a group of viruses that affect the liver. Each type of viral hepatitis is caused by a different virus, and each virus has different symptoms, treatments, and outcomes. In this article, we will focus on the diagnosis of viral hepatitis. Hepatitis A is usually diagnosed based on the symptoms, physical exam, and medical history of the patient. Blood tests can also be used to confirm the diagnosis of hepatitis A. These tests can detect the presence of antibodies to the hepatitis A virus in the blood. If antibodies are present, it indicates that the person has been infected with the virus at some point in the past, and has developed immunity to the virus. In some cases, a sample of stool may be collected and tested for the presence of the HAV. This is done using a test called the enzyme immunoassay or polymerase chain reaction test. These tests can detect the virus in the stool, even before symptoms appear [1].

Description

Hepatitis B is diagnosed through blood tests that detect the presence of the hepatitis B virus in the blood. These tests can detect the virus itself, or antibodies to the virus. There are several types of blood tests that can be used to diagnose hepatitis B. This test detects antibodies to the surface antigen of the hepatitis B virus. These antibodies are present in the blood after recovery from an HBV infection, or after vaccination against the virus. In some cases, a liver biopsy may be done to confirm the diagnosis of hepatitis B. This involves taking a small sample of liver tissue, which is examined under a microscope for signs of inflammation or damage. Hepatitis C is diagnosed through blood tests that detect the presence of the hepatitis C virus in the blood. There are several types of blood tests that can be used to diagnose hepatitis C. This test detects antibodies to the hepatitis C virus. If the test is positive, it indicates that the person has been infected with HCV at some point in the past, but does not necessarily mean that they have a current infection. This test detects the presence of the hepatitis C virus itself in the blood. If the test is positive, it indicates that the person has a current infection with HCV [2].

In some cases, a liver biopsy may be done to confirm the diagnosis of hepatitis C. This involves taking a small sample of liver tissue, which is examined under a microscope for signs of inflammation or damage. Hepatitis D is diagnosed through blood tests that detect the presence of the hepatitis D virus in the blood. These tests can detect the virus itself, or antibodies to the virus. There are several types of blood tests that can be used to diagnose hepatitis D. This test detects the presence of the hepatitis D virus itself in the blood. If the test is positive, it indicates that the person has a current infection with HDV. This test detects antibodies to the hepatitis D virus. If the test is positive, it indicates that the person has been infected with HDV at some point [3].

Viral hepatitis is a group of infectious diseases caused by different types of viruses that affect the liver. There are five main types of viral hepatitis A, B, C, D and E. Hepatitis A and E are transmitted primarily through the consumption of contaminated food or water, while hepatitis B, C and D are transmitted through blood and other bodily fluids. In this article, we will focus on the molecular aspects of viral hepatitis, including the structure and replication of the viruses, as well as their interaction with host cells. All hepatitis viruses are small, enveloped viruses with a genome of either RNA or DNA. The hepatitis A virus is a small, nonenveloped RNA virus with a single-stranded positive-sense genome. The hepatitis B virus is a partially double-stranded DNA virus, which replicates via an RNA intermediate. The hepatitis C virus is a small, enveloped RNA virus with a singlestranded positive-sense genome. The hepatitis D virus is a small, enveloped RNA virus with a single-stranded negative-sense genome that requires HBV for its replication. The hepatitis E virus is a small, non-enveloped RNA virus with a single-stranded positive-sense genome. The replication of hepatitis viruses is complex and involves multiple steps. In general, the replication cycle of a hepatitis virus can be divided into three stages: entry, replication, and release [4].

Hepatitis viruses enter host cells by attaching to specific receptors on the cell surface. For example, HAV enters cells by binding to the HAV cellular receptor 1, also known as TIM-1. HBV enters cells by binding to sodium taurocholate co-transporting polypeptide, while HCV enters cells by binding to several host cell receptors, including CD81, scavenger receptor class B type I and claudin-1. Once inside the host cell, hepatitis viruses must replicate their genetic material and assemble new virus particles. The replication strategy of each hepatitis virus differs, but all viruses use host cell machinery to replicate their genomes. For example, HAV replicates its genome via a mechanism called "polyprotein processing," in which a single polyprotein is cleaved into smaller proteins by viral and host proteases. HBV replicates via reverse transcription of an RNA intermediate, while HCV replicates via a mechanism called "RNA replication complex" assembly, which involves the formation of a multi-protein complex on the surface of intracellular membranes [5].

Conclusion

After new virus particles are assembled, they must be released from the host cell to infect new cells. The mechanisms of virus release differ among the hepatitis viruses. For example, HAV is released from cells via a process called "non-lytic release," in which new virus particles are released from the cell without causing cell death. HBV is released from cells via a process called "enveloped virion secretion," in which new virus particles are surrounded by a lipid envelope before being released from the cell. HCV is released from cells via a process called "secretion," in which new virus particles are released from the cell by budding into intracellular vesicles. Hepatitis viruses interact with host cells in complex ways, and these interactions play a key role in the pathogenesis of viral hepatitis. The molecular mechanisms underlying these interactions are the subject of ongoing research, but some general features are known. Hepatitis viruses can cause both acute and chronic infections, and the severity of the infection is often related to the ability of the virus.

Acknowledgement

None.

Conflict of Interest

None.

References

1. Berrios, Monica, Maria Angeles Martin and Antonio Martin. "Treatment of pollutants in wastewater: Adsorption of methylene blue onto olive-based activated carbon."J Ind Eng Chem18 (2012): 780-784.

Google Scholar, Crossref, Indexed at

2. Inagaki, Michio, Hidetaka Konno and Osamu Tanaike. "Carbon materials for electrochemical capacitors."J Power Sources 195 (2010): 7880-7903.

Google Scholar, Crossref, Indexed at

3. Arof, Abdul Kariem, M. Z. Kufian, M. F. Syukur and M. F. Aziz, et al. "Electrical double layer capacitor using poly (methyl methacrylate)–C4BO8Li gel polymer electrolyte and carbonaceous material from shells of mata kucing (Dimocarpus longan) fruit."Electrochim Acta 74 (2012): 39-45.

Google Scholar, Crossref

4. Pagketanang, Thanchanok, Apichart Artnaseaw, Prasong Wongwicha and Mallika Thabuot. "Microporous activated carbon from KOH-activation of rubber seed-shells for application in capacitor electrode."Energy Procedia79 (2015): 651-656.

Google Scholar, Crossref, Indexed at

5. Boujibar, Ouassim, Arunabh Ghosh, Ouafae Achak and Tarik Chafik, et al. "A high energy storage supercapacitor based on nanoporous activated carbon electrode made from Argan shells with excellent ion transport in aqueous and non-aqueous electrolytes."J Energy Storage26 (2019): 100958.

Google Scholar, Crossref, Indexed at