Non-steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs in Aquatic Systems: Effects on Bivalves

Kirsten Frimpong^*
*Correspondence: Kirsten Frimpong, Department of Public Health, University of New South Wales, NSW, Australia, Email:

Introduction

Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) are among the most widely used pharmaceuticals worldwide, commonly prescribed for pain management, inflammation, and fever reduction. While these drugs are beneficial to humans and animals, their widespread usage has unintended consequences for the environment, particularly aquatic ecosystems. NSAIDs, such as ibuprofen, diclofenac, and naproxen, are often excreted in human and animal waste, entering water bodies through sewage systems, wastewater treatment plants, or direct runoff. Once in the aquatic environment, these chemicals can persist and accumulate, potentially harming aquatic life, especially organisms like bivalves, which are integral to the health of marine ecosystems. Bivalves, including mussels, clams, and oysters, play critical roles in aquatic ecosystems by filtering water, supporting biodiversity, and contributing to the food chain. However, exposure to pharmaceuticals, including NSAIDs, can alter their physiological functions, behavior, and overall health, potentially disrupting ecosystem dynamics. The concern regarding NSAIDs in the aquatic environment has grown in recent years due to the increasing recognition of their ecological impact. These drugs can interfere with the endocrine system, affect reproduction, and alter feeding behaviours in bivalves, among other adverse effects. Despite the growing body of research, the extent of the impact of NSAIDs on aquatic ecosystems and bivalve populations is still not fully understood. This paper examines the current state of knowledge on NSAIDs in aquatic environments, with a particular focus on bivalves. It explores the sources and pathways through which NSAIDs enter aquatic ecosystems, the mechanisms by which bivalves are affected, and the ecological consequences of pharmaceutical contamination. Additionally, this review highlights the current research on mitigating the impact of NSAIDs in aquatic environments, the need for more effective wastewater treatment strategies, and the importance of further studies to better understand the long-term consequences of pharmaceutical pollution on aquatic ecosystems [1].

Description

The presence of NSAIDs in aquatic environments is primarily due to the widespread consumption of these drugs and their subsequent excretion into the wastewater system. After consumption, a significant portion of NSAIDs remains unmetabolized in the human body and is released into the environment through urine and feces. Conventional Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs) are often not designed to effectively remove pharmaceutical contaminants like NSAIDs, allowing them to persist in treated effluents and enter natural water bodies. In addition to domestic sources, NSAIDs can also enter aquatic systems through agricultural runoff, particularly from veterinary medicines used in livestock. Once in the water, NSAIDs can persist for extended periods, depending on their chemical properties, leading to continuous exposure for aquatic organisms. Bivalves, being filter feeders, are particularly vulnerable to contamination from pharmaceutical pollutants like NSAIDs. These organisms filter vast amounts of water to feed, inadvertently ingesting particles and chemicals present in their environment. Due to their feeding behavior, bivalves accumulate NSAIDs in their tissues, where they can exert both direct and indirect effects. Several studies have documented changes in the physiological and biochemical processes of bivalves exposed to NSAIDs. For instance, exposure to drugs like diclofenac and ibuprofen can alter the antioxidant defense systems in bivalves, making them more susceptible to oxidative stress. This can lead to cellular damage, affecting the health of individual organisms and potentially reducing their survival rates [2]. The reproductive health of bivalves is another critical area of concern when considering the impact of NSAIDs. Research has shown that certain NSAIDs can interfere with the endocrine system of aquatic organisms, leading to altered reproductive behaviors, reduced fertilization rates, and changes in the development of offspring. In some species of bivalves, NSAID exposure has been linked to a decrease in gamete quality and a reduction in reproductive success, which could have long-term consequences for bivalve populations. Moreover, the exposure to pharmaceuticals can disrupt the normal feeding patterns of bivalves. NSAIDs can alter their feeding rate, leading to a reduced ability to filter and process organic matter, which can affect their role in maintaining water quality. This disruption of ecosystem functions could, in turn, have cascading effects on the overall health of the aquatic environment. Beyond the immediate physiological effects on bivalves, the presence of NSAIDs in aquatic environments can lead to broader ecological consequences. Bivalves are an essential part of the food web, providing food for a variety of species, including fish, birds, and humans. By affecting their health and reproductive success, NSAIDs can indirectly influence the entire aquatic ecosystem, including commercial fisheries that rely on healthy bivalve populations. Additionally, changes in bivalve populations can lead to altered nutrient cycling and water filtration capacity, potentially exacerbating water quality issues such as algal blooms and eutrophication [3]. To address the issue of NSAID contamination in aquatic environments, researchers have focused on improving wastewater treatment technologies. Conventional WWTPs are ineffective at removing pharmaceuticals, including NSAIDs, from wastewater, and as a result, alternative treatment methods are being explored. Advanced treatment technologies such as constructed wetlands, membrane filtration, and ozonation have shown promise in removing pharmaceutical contaminants, but these methods are not yet widely adopted due to high costs and the complexity of implementation. There is also a growing need for more effective monitoring and regulation of pharmaceutical pollutants, as current environmental standards often do not adequately account for the presence of emerging contaminants like NSAIDs. Monitoring programs that track the concentration of pharmaceuticals in surface waters, sediments, and biota are essential for understanding the scope of the problem and evaluating the effectiveness of mitigation strategies. Furthermore, reducing the release of NSAIDs into the environment requires a multi-faceted approach, including improvements in drug disposal practices, better wastewater treatment processes, and public awareness campaigns. For example, promoting the safe disposal of unused medications can reduce the amount of pharmaceuticals entering the waste stream. Moreover, researchers are advocating for the development of environmentally friendly pharmaceuticals that degrade more rapidly in the environment, reducing the long-term persistence of these chemicals in aquatic ecosystems [4]. In conclusion, the growing presence of Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) in the aquatic environment, particularly in relation to bivalves, presents a complex and urgent issue. The accumulation of these drugs in water bodies and their subsequent uptake by aquatic organisms such as bivalves raises significant concerns about both the health of individual species and the overall integrity of aquatic ecosystems. NSAIDs can disrupt the physiological functions of bivalves, including their reproductive systems, feeding behaviors, and antioxidant defenses, potentially leading to declines in population sizes and broader ecological consequences. As filter feeders, bivalves play an essential role in maintaining water quality and supporting aquatic biodiversity, making their vulnerability to pharmaceutical contamination a critical issue. While current research has provided valuable insights into the mechanisms by which NSAIDs affect bivalves and other aquatic organisms, there remains much to learn about the long-term ecological effects of these drugs. More comprehensive studies are needed to assess the persistence of NSAIDs in aquatic environments, their bioaccumulation in marine organisms, and the potential for ecosystem-wide disruptions [5].

Conclusion

In conclusion furthermore, the development of more effective wastewater treatment technologies, combined with better waste disposal practices and stronger regulatory frameworks, is necessary to mitigate the impact of pharmaceutical pollutants on aquatic ecosystems. The adoption of AI-driven monitoring tools, more effective filtration techniques, and public education on safe drug disposal are all important steps toward reducing the environmental burden of NSAIDs. As society continues to grapple with the environmental consequences of pharmaceutical pollution, the role of bivalves as bioindicators of aquatic health becomes increasingly important. Through continued research and the implementation of more sustainable practices, it is possible to protect both aquatic ecosystems and the valuable resources they provide, ensuring the preservation of biodiversity and the health of our planetâ??s water bodies for generations to come. The integration of scientific research, technological innovation, and policy changes will be key to addressing the challenges posed by NSAIDs in aquatic environments and ensuring the resilience of bivalve populations and the ecosystems they support.

Acknowledgement

None.

Conflict of Interest

None.

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