Immunotoxicology: Diverse Agents, New Models, Health Risks

Ricardo M. Silva^*
*Correspondence: Ricardo M. Silva, Department of Immunology, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil, Email:

Introduction

This review highlights challenges and strategies for translating in vitro immunotoxicity findings to in vivo relevance. It discusses the critical need for sophisticated in vitro models that mimic the complexity of the immune system to better predict human immune responses to various toxicants. The authors emphasize integrated approaches, combining computational methods, advanced cell culture, and omics technologies, to improve risk assessment [1].

This paper delves into the immunotoxic effects of micro(nano)plastics, both directly and through the pollutants they adsorb. It discusses how these pervasive environmental contaminants can disrupt immune cell function, trigger inflammation, and alter host defense mechanisms across various organisms, emphasizing complex pathways and the pressing need for comprehensive risk assessment [2].

This systematic review examines epidemiological evidence concerning the immunotoxic effects of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in human populations. It synthesizes findings on how exposure to these ubiquitous chemicals links to altered immune responses, reduced vaccine efficacy, and increased susceptibility to infections, underscoring public health implications of PFAS contamination [3].

This article reviews the immunotoxicological aspects of nanomaterials, detailing diverse mechanisms by which nanoparticles interact with and disrupt the immune system. It covers issues from inflammatory responses and immunosuppression to autoimmune effects, advocating for a clearer understanding of these mechanisms to inform robust health risk assessments [4].

This review discusses immunotoxicology associated with therapeutic proteins, exploring mechanisms behind undesirable immune responses like immunogenicity and hypersensitivity. It highlights current predictive strategies and challenges in developing safe and effective biopharmaceuticals, emphasizing the need for advanced methods to mitigate immune-related adverse events [5].

This paper explores developmental immunotoxicology, focusing on how early-life exposure to toxicants can permanently alter immune system development and function. It addresses the complexity of assessing these effects, emphasizing long-term health consequences and the need for improved testing strategies to protect vulnerable populations [6].

This article critically evaluates the current state of in vitro models used in immunotoxicology, discussing their limitations and potential for improvement. It highlights advanced cell culture techniques, organ-on-a-chip systems, and computational tools as avenues for creating more physiologically relevant models, which can better predict human immune responses to toxicants [7].

This review synthesizes current knowledge on the immunotoxic effects of airborne particulate matter. It details mechanisms by which different sizes and compositions of particles can trigger inflammation, oxidative stress, and impaired immune function, leading to respiratory and systemic health problems, and highlights the urgent need for air quality interventions [8].

This comprehensive review examines the immunotoxic effects of various pesticides, outlining how exposure can disrupt immune cell populations, alter cytokine production, and compromise host defense against pathogens. It highlights diverse mechanisms of action and the critical need for more rigorous assessment of pesticide-induced immunotoxicity in both occupational and environmental contexts [9].

This paper reviews the immunotoxic effects of various environmental pollutants and explores potential biomarkers for detecting such damage. It discusses how chemicals like heavy metals, air pollutants, and endocrine disruptors can modulate immune responses, stressing the importance of identifying reliable biomarkers for early detection and risk assessment [10].

Description

Immunotoxicology faces significant challenges in translating in vitro findings to in vivo relevance, necessitating advanced models that effectively mimic the immune system's complexity to accurately predict human responses to toxicants [1, 7]. Current in vitro models, despite their utility, have limitations. However, advancements in cell culture techniques, organ-on-a-chip systems, and computational tools are promising avenues for developing more predictive and physiologically relevant assays, thereby improving immunotoxicity assessments [7]. Furthermore, developmental immunotoxicology highlights how early-life exposure to toxicants can permanently alter immune system development and function, with long-term health consequences for vulnerable populations, demanding improved testing strategies [6].

Environmental contaminants represent a broad category of immunotoxic agents. Micro(nano)plastics, for instance, exert immunotoxic effects both directly and via pollutants they adsorb. These pervasive contaminants disrupt immune cell function, trigger inflammation, and alter host defense mechanisms across diverse organisms. The intricate pathways involved emphasize the pressing necessity for comprehensive risk assessment to address their widespread impact on ecosystems and health [2].

Further environmental threats include per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), ubiquitous chemicals linked to altered immune responses, reduced vaccine efficacy, and increased susceptibility to infections in human populations. These findings underscore substantial public health implications stemming from widespread PFAS contamination [3]. Similarly, airborne particulate matter triggers inflammation, oxidative stress, and impaired immune function through various mechanisms. Different sizes and compositions of these particles contribute to both respiratory issues and systemic health problems, highlighting the urgent need for air quality interventions and stricter regulatory measures [8].

Pesticides also contribute significantly to environmental immunotoxicity. Reviews reveal how exposure to various pesticides can disrupt immune cell populations, alter cytokine production, and compromise host defense against pathogens. The diverse mechanisms of action demand rigorous and standardized assessment of pesticide-induced immunotoxicity in both occupational and environmental contexts to protect exposed individuals [9]. Moreover, a wide array of other environmental pollutants, including heavy metals, air pollutants, and endocrine disruptors, can subtly modulate immune responses. This necessitates the crucial identification of reliable biomarkers for early detection of immune damage and more accurate risk assessment, offering pathways to better environmental monitoring and public health protection strategies [10].

Beyond widespread environmental exposure, other specific agents present significant immunotoxicological concerns. Nanomaterials interact with and disrupt the immune system through diverse mechanisms, leading to outcomes ranging from inflammatory responses and immunosuppression to autoimmune effects. A clearer understanding of these mechanisms is vital for informing robust and accurate health risk assessments related to nanomaterial exposure [4]. Similarly, therapeutic proteins grapple with immunotoxicology challenges, particularly regarding mechanisms that lead to undesirable immune responses like immunogenicity and hypersensitivity reactions. Developing safe and effective biopharmaceuticals critically depends on advanced predictive strategies and innovative methodologies to mitigate these immune-related adverse events [5].

Ultimately, bridging the gap between in vitro and in vivo approaches remains a central objective in immunotoxicology. This calls for integrating cutting-edge methodologies, combining advanced computational methods, sophisticated cell culture techniques, and comprehensive omics technologies to refine risk assessment protocols [1]. The continuous evaluation and refinement of in vitro models aim to overcome current limitations by leveraging sophisticated tools to predict complex human immune responses more accurately [7]. Comprehensive risk assessment and effective protective strategies depend on unraveling the complex pathways of immunotoxicity across various substances and critical life stages, supported by robust scientific methods and reliable biomarkers [1, 6, 7, 10].

Conclusion

The field of immunotoxicology actively investigates how various substances disrupt the immune system, encompassing diverse mechanisms and implications for human health. A central challenge involves effectively translating in vitro research findings to in vivo relevance, highlighting the critical need for sophisticated in vitro models, advanced cell culture, organ-on-a-chip systems, and computational tools that better mimic complex human immune responses [1, 7]. Many studies focus on pervasive environmental contaminants. Micro(nano)plastics, for example, induce immunotoxic effects directly and through adsorbed pollutants, impacting immune cell function and host defense [2]. Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are linked to altered immune responses, reduced vaccine efficacy, and increased infection susceptibility in humans [3]. Airborne particulate matter triggers inflammation and impairs immune function, leading to respiratory and systemic problems [8]. Pesticides also disrupt immune cell populations and compromise defense against pathogens [9], while other environmental pollutants, including heavy metals and endocrine disruptors, modulate immune responses, emphasizing the need for biomarkers for early detection and risk assessment [10]. Beyond these, nanomaterials interact with the immune system causing inflammatory, immunosuppressive, or autoimmune effects [4], and therapeutic proteins can elicit undesirable immune responses like immunogenicity, necessitating advanced predictive strategies [5]. A distinct but crucial area is developmental immunotoxicology, which examines how early-life toxicant exposure can permanently alter immune system development, leading to long-term health consequences and underscoring the need for improved testing strategies for vulnerable populations [6]. Integrated approaches combining various technologies are essential for improving risk assessment across these diverse immunotoxic challenges.

Acknowledgement

None

Conflict of Interest

None

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