Journal of Molecular Histology & Medical Physiology

Breast cancer is a complex illness with a range of biological characteristics, behaviour, and therapeutic response. Since there are more and more potentially effective treatment options available, regular clinical management of breast cancer currently relies on the availability of reliable clinical and pathological prognostic and predictive indicators to help clinical and patient decision-making. Histological grade, which represents the morphological assessment of tumour biological properties and has been found to be able to produce significant information related to the clinical behaviour of breast malignancies, is one of the best-established prognostic variables in breast cancer. Multiple aspects of breast cancer biology have been uncovered by genome-wide microarray-based expression profiling investigations, and these studies have also provided more proof that the biological parameters represented by histological grade are significant in defining tumour behaviour. Additionally, research using expression profiling have produced results that are clinically applicable and have considerably increased our understanding of the biology of breast cancer. These studies are currently being evaluated as more accurate prognostic and predictive tools in clinical practise.

In a wide range of animals and people, retroviruses are cancer-causing. The study of retroviruses has shed light on the mechanisms underlying human oncogenesis, including the identification of viral and cellular proto-oncogenes. The processes through which non-acute retrovirusesretroviruses without oncogenes-cause cancer are the focus of this review. The recurring idea is that these cancers develop as a result of viral DNA integration activating cellular proto-oncogenes by insertional activation. Review of early studies on proto-oncogene insertional activation in cancers brought on by viruses. Searches for common insertion sites (CISs) in virus-induced malignancies have helped researchers studying non-acute retroviruses find new proto-oncogenes. Retroviral infection of genetically susceptible mice (retroviral tagging) has been used to discover cellular proto-oncogenes active in particular oncogenic pathways and has helped to shed light on the cooperation between various proto-oncogenes in the development of tumours. The availability of the mouse genome sequence, high throughput DNA sequencing, and the PCR cloning of viral integration sites have all sped up the pace of proto-oncogene identification. Insertional activation has been shown to be a substantial danger in gene therapy studies using retroviral vectors to treat genetic abnormalities. Studies on non-acute retroviral oncogenesis shed light on the mechanics of oncogenesis as well as potential hazards.

The proteins known as insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) share a lot of similarities with insulin in their sequence. IGFs are a component of a sophisticated system used by cells to interact with their physiologic environment. Two cell-surface receptors (IGF1R and IGF2R), two ligands (IGF-1 and IGF-2), a family of seven high-affinity IGF-binding proteins (IGFBP1 to IGFBP7), and associated IGFBP degrading enzymes, collectively known as proteases, make up this intricate system, which is frequently referred to as the IGF "axis." IGF-1 plays a role in controlling various aspects of brain development, such as neurogenesis, myelination, synaptogenesis, dendritic branching, and neuroprotection following neuronal damage. IGF-I serum levels that are greater in children have been linked to a higher IQ. IGF-1 regulates apoptosis, which influences how the cochlea develops. Hearing loss can result from its absence. Additionally, an association between low stature and impaired hearing, particularly between the ages of three and five and eighteen, is explained by the serum level of it.

The proteins known as insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) share a lot of similarities with insulin in their sequence. IGFs are a component of a sophisticated system used by cells to interact with their physiologic environment. Two cell-surface receptors (IGF1R and IGF2R), two ligands (IGF-1 and IGF-2), a family of seven high-affinity IGF-binding proteins (IGFBP1 to IGFBP7), and associated IGFBP degrading enzymes, collectively known as proteases, make up this intricate system, which is frequently referred to as the IGF "axis." IGF-1 plays a role in controlling various aspects of brain development, such as neurogenesis, myelination, synaptogenesis, dendritic branching, and neuroprotection following neuronal damage. IGF-I serum levels that are greater in children have been linked to a higher IQ. IGF-1 regulates apoptosis, which influences how the cochlea develops. Hearing loss can result from its absence. Additionally, an association between low stature and impaired hearing, particularly between the ages of three and five and eighteen, is explained by the serum level of it.

A branch of biology known as molecular biology studies how genes are translated into RNA, how that RNA is then translated into proteins, and how those proteins affect cellular function. Since around 1960, molecular biologists have created techniques to recognise, separate, and work with the molecules that make up cells, such as DNA, RNA, and proteins. One of the most crucial methods in molecular biology is the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which essentially copies DNA. A single DNA sequence can be amplified into millions of DNA molecules using the PCR method. Additionally, DNA mutations or unique restriction enzyme sites can be introduced via PCR. Additionally, PCR is used to find out if a specific DNA fragment is present in a cDNA library. Reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR), which amplifies RNA, and quantitative PCR (QPCR), which counts the amount of RNA or DNA present, are two different forms of PCR.