Biochemical Markers: Transforming Forensic Investigations

Carolina Vega^*
*Correspondence: Carolina Vega, Department of Forensic Pathology and Medical Ethics, University of Buenos Aires Faculty of Medicine, Argentina, Email:

Introduction

Forensic anthropology extensively uses biochemical and molecular techniques to accurately estimate age, especially from skeletal remains. These methods focus on detecting subtle yet significant changes in proteins, DNA methylation, and other biomolecules that occur as individuals age. Such markers offer a scientific foundation for improving the precision and reliability of forensic investigations involving human remains, moving beyond less objective traditional estimations [1].

Diagnosing sudden cardiac death presents ongoing challenges in forensic pathology, particularly when typical morphological findings are inconclusive. Systematic reviews now highlight a range of postmortem biochemical markers, including troponin, creatine kinase-MB, and inflammatory cytokines. These indicators are crucial for aiding forensic pathologists in identifying the underlying cause of death, providing objective evidence where visual examination falls short [2].

Salivary biomarkers are gaining prominence due to their diverse forensic applications and the non-invasive nature of saliva collection. These markers are used effectively for human identification, drug detection, precise age estimation, and thorough trauma assessment. Their utility underscores saliva's value as a readily available and rich source for biochemical evidence, with potential for further advancements in forensic science [3].

Estimating the postmortem interval (PMI) accurately is vital for reconstructing events in forensic cases. This review highlights significant advances in using various biochemical markers, which move beyond conventional methods. By analyzing the specific degradation patterns of proteins, metabolites, and nucleic acids found in different tissues, researchers can derive more precise and objective estimations of the time of death [4].

Forensic toxicology employs a comprehensive set of biochemical markers to assess alcohol consumption. These include direct markers such as ethyl glucuronide (EtG) and ethyl sulfate (EtS), which indicate recent intake, and indirect markers like Carbohydrate Deficient Transferrin (CDT) and Gamma-Glutamyl Transferase (GGT), indicative of chronic use. Understanding their utility, detection windows, and limitations is essential for accurate assessments in legal contexts [5].

Drowning cases demand careful forensic investigation to differentiate true drowning from other forms of death or immersion. This systematic review explores the efficacy of biochemical markers for both antemortem diagnosis and postmortem differentiation. It critically assesses markers like diatom detection, strontium levels in body fluids, and lung surfactant proteins, aiming to provide objective evidence for definitive conclusions in such complex scenarios [6].

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are rapidly emerging as powerful and stable biochemical markers in the field of forensic identification. Their unique tissue-specific profiles offer considerable potential for determining the origin of various body fluids, accurately estimating age, and distinguishing between individuals with high specificity. This innovative class of evidence provides new avenues for resolving complex forensic cases [7].

The field of metabolomics, which involves the comprehensive analysis of small molecules, is increasingly applied in forensic science. This review highlights how metabolomic profiles serve as powerful biochemical markers, offering insights in toxicological investigations, refining postmortem interval estimation, and aiding human identification. It promises novel understandings of biological processes occurring post-mortem, enhancing forensic capabilities [8].

Proteomic markers offer a sophisticated approach for precisely estimating the postmortem interval (PMI). This review focuses on how a systematic analysis of protein degradation and modification patterns across various tissues provides a more accurate timeline for death. Such methods represent significant advancements, offering objective and detailed information that considerably surpasses the capabilities of traditional forensic pathology techniques [9].

In forensic anthropology, bone remodeling biochemical markers are invaluable for gleaning crucial biological information from skeletal remains. These indicators, reflecting the dynamic processes of bone formation and resorption, assist significantly in age estimation, trauma analysis, and the assessment of pathological conditions. They provide a deeper understanding of an individual's life history and health status, aiding identification and case reconstruction [10].

Description

Biochemical markers are becoming indispensable tools across forensic sciences, offering a path to more objective and precise evidence. One significant area is forensic anthropology, where researchers are increasingly turning to advanced biochemical and molecular techniques for estimating age, especially when dealing with skeletal remains. These sophisticated methods delve into the subtle yet measurable changes in proteins, DNA methylation patterns, and various other biomolecules that naturally accrue over an individual's lifetime. This approach promises to significantly improve the accuracy and scientific rigor of forensic investigations involving human remains, moving beyond the inherent limitations of traditional morphological assessments [1]. Complementing this, the analysis of bone remodeling biochemical markers provides further invaluable information. These indicators directly reflect the dynamic processes of bone formation and resorption, which are crucial for forensic anthropologists. By studying these markers, experts can more effectively assist in age estimation, conduct thorough trauma analysis, and precisely assess pathological conditions evident from skeletal remains, thereby yielding deeper and more comprehensive biological insights into the individuals being examined [10].

Accurately determining the postmortem interval (PMI) remains a cornerstone of forensic investigations, critical for reconstructing the timeline of events. Recent reviews emphasize substantial progress in employing diverse biochemical markers, signifying a marked departure from and improvement upon conventional methodologies. This modern approach involves a meticulous analysis of the degradation patterns unique to specific proteins, metabolites, and nucleic acids found within various tissues. Such detailed molecular analysis empowers investigators to achieve significantly more accurate and objective estimations of the time of death [4]. Furthermore, the field of proteomics contributes substantially to this area; focusing specifically on proteomic markers offers a highly sophisticated means for precisely estimating PMI. This involves the systematic analysis of protein degradation and modification patterns across different tissues, which provides a refined and reliable timeline of death, offering considerable advantages over older, less precise techniques available to forensic pathologists [9]. The broader scope of metabolomics also plays a vital role here, with its comprehensive analysis of small molecules acting as powerful biochemical markers that inform toxicological investigations, further refine PMI estimations, and assist in human identification, thereby uncovering novel insights into the complex biological processes that unfold post-mortem [8].

Biochemical markers are also pivotal in resolving specific diagnostic dilemmas within forensic pathology. For instance, in cases involving sudden cardiac death, where standard morphological examinations often prove inconclusive, systematic reviews underscore the critical utility of postmortem biochemical markers. These include key indicators such as troponin, creatine kinase-MB, and inflammatory cytokines, which provide essential objective evidence to help forensic pathologists pinpoint the exact cause of death [2]. Similarly, the challenging task of differentiating true drowning cases from other causes of death or simple immersion is greatly aided by critically assessed biochemical markers. These include specialized indicators like diatom detection, the quantification of strontium levels in body fluids, and the analysis of lung surfactant proteins, all providing objective evidence for making definitive conclusions in these complex scenarios [6]. In forensic toxicology, a comprehensive array of biochemical markers is employed to meticulously assess alcohol consumption. This encompasses direct markers such as ethyl glucuronide (EtG) and ethyl sulfate (EtS), which are highly indicative of recent intake, alongside indirect markers like Carbohydrate Deficient Transferrin (CDT) and Gamma-Glutamyl Transferase (GGT), which provide evidence of chronic alcohol use. A thorough evaluation of their respective utility, detection windows, and inherent limitations is paramount for accurate and legally defensible assessments [5].

The landscape of human identification in forensic science is undergoing a significant transformation through the integration of novel biochemical markers and advanced non-invasive collection methodologies. Salivary biomarkers, for example, are increasingly recognized for their wide-ranging and versatile applications. Saliva itself stands out as a highly valuable and non-invasive biological matrix, ideal for collecting biochemical evidence pertinent to various aspects of forensic investigation, including human identification, the detection of drug substances, precise age estimation, and comprehensive trauma assessment. Ongoing research actively explores further innovative directions for these markers [3]. Moreover, microRNAs (miRNAs) are rapidly emerging as particularly robust and stable biochemical markers with profound implications for forensic identification. Their unique tissue-specific and remarkably stable profiles hold considerable potential for accurately determining the origin of various body fluids, precisely estimating an individual's age, and even reliably distinguishing between individuals with high specificity. This innovative class of molecular evidence offers powerful new avenues for resolving even the most intricate and challenging forensic cases [7].

Conclusion

Forensic science heavily relies on biochemical markers for various critical applications. These markers improve accuracy in age estimation, particularly from skeletal remains, by analyzing changes in proteins and DNA methylation. Beyond age, biochemical markers are vital for determining the postmortem interval, with advancements using degradation patterns of proteins, metabolites, and nucleic acids in different tissues to provide objective time-of-death estimations. Diagnosing sudden cardiac death, especially when traditional morphological findings are inconclusive, benefits from the evaluation of postmortem biochemical markers like troponin and inflammatory cytokines. Forensic toxicology uses these markers to assess alcohol consumption, differentiating between direct markers like ethyl glucuronide and indirect ones such as CDT and GGT for legal contexts. Salivary biomarkers offer a non-invasive approach for human identification, drug detection, age estimation, and trauma assessment. MicroRNAs are emerging as robust tools for forensic identification, capable of determining body fluid origin and distinguishing individuals. Metabolomics further expands forensic capabilities by comprehensively analyzing small molecules for toxicological investigations, postmortem interval estimation, and human identification. Specific applications also include distinguishing true drowning cases from other causes of death using markers like diatom detection and strontium. Moreover, bone remodeling markers in forensic anthropology assist in age estimation, trauma analysis, and assessing pathological conditions from skeletal remains. Collectively, these diverse biochemical and molecular approaches are transforming forensic investigations, providing objective and precise evidence for a wide array of forensic challenges, from determining time of death to identifying individuals and causes of fatality.

Acknowledgement

None

Conflict of Interest

None

References

1. Eric B, Michele DL, Vincenzo DL. "Biochemical and molecular methods for age estimation in forensic anthropology".Forensic Science International 344 (2023):111586.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Crossref

2. Zhen Z, Zhixiang Z, Si X. "Postmortem biochemical markers in sudden cardiac death diagnosis: A systematic review".Forensic Science International 349 (2023):111718.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Crossref

3. Leonardo Z, André VSdO, Ana LNFBdA. "Forensic application of salivary biomarkers: A systematic review".Forensic Science International: Reports 6 (2022):100188.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Crossref

4. Anna K, Jakub K, Joanna G. "Advances in postmortem interval estimation using biochemical markers".Forensic Science, Medicine and Pathology 20 (2024):159-173.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Crossref

5. Can K, Å?engül AG, Yusuf E. "Biomarkers of alcohol consumption in forensic toxicology: A comprehensive review".Forensic Science International 318 (2021):110595.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Crossref

6. Luan MSL, Fernando LM, Laís LL. "Biochemical markers for antemortem diagnosis and postmortem differentiation of drowning: A systematic review".Forensic Science International 339 (2022):111425.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Crossref

7. Gašper K, Gordan S, Maja TTŠ. "The Role of MicroRNAs as Biochemical Markers in Forensic Identification".Diagnostics 10 (2020):1038.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Crossref

8. Lampros G, Persefoni K, Ioannis K. "Metabolomics in forensic science: Current applications and future prospects for biochemical markers".Forensic Science International 353 (2023):111604.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Crossref

9. Ting Y, Dayi Z, Kai M. "Proteomic Markers for Estimation of Postmortem Interval: A Review".Frontiers in Genetics 12 (2021):649723.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Crossref

10. Frederico AC, Ã?lida CPdS, Carolina PBPdV. "Bone remodeling biochemical markers in forensic anthropology: A review".Forensic Science International: Reports 3 (2021):100140.

Indexed at, Google Scholar, Crossref